Istilah Istilah Dalam Politik Internasional

1. Absolute Advantage a country is said to have an absolute advantage in a good if it is better able to produce that good (more efficient) than other countries. It is in the best interests of a country to specialize in the production of goods for which it has an absolute advantage.

2. Absolute Gains the net benefits that a state receives through its interactions with others. States aim to achieve the best outcome for themselves on an individual basis, irrespective of the gains other states have made. This is typical of a liberal model of international relations.

3. Anarchy the idea that within the international system there exists no overarching authority. Each state is an autonomous actor, with no higher level of governance. The lack of higher authority renders the system chaotic and unpredictable, but not necessarily destined for conflict. (Mearsheimer, Waltz, Hobbes)

4. Appeasement the act of accommodating the demands of an assertive power in an attempt to prevent conflict. Western Europe’s appeasement of Hitler in the late 1930s is the classic example of appeasement and its dangers. (Nye)

5. Asian Values emphasize the needs of the community as opposed to those of the individual, which are central to Western thought. Neither Westerners nor Asians should attempt to impose their concept on human rights on the other (PM Lee Kwan Yew, Singapore)

6. Autarky a state of self-sufficiency. The term is most commonly used when referring to economics, when a state's ability to produce goods and services is above the subsistence level. However, autarky does not have to refer to economics; a military autarky would be one that could defend itself without outside help. [1]

7. Balance Of Power describes 1) the distribution of power in the international system, 2) a policy of balancing foreign powers to prevent one state from gaining a preponderance of power, or 3) the balances of military power that existed in the multipolar system of Europe in the 19th century. (Nye)

8. Balance of Threat, or balancing this concept is an expansion of traditional balance of power theory by Kenneth Waltz (structural realism). Balancing says that small states will align with each other so as to counter a rising threat or power.

9. Bandwagoning an alternative to balancing in which states align themselves with the rising threat or power, sacrificing potential influence for security. This phenomenon is more common at the end of a conflict when there is a clear victor. This concept is specifically associated with realist balance of power theory. An example of bandwagoning is the alliance of Bulgaria and Romania with the Third Reich in the absence of ideological sympathies.

10. Billiard Ball Model says that the study of the internal politics of states is unnecessary to understanding international relations. International relations can instead be understood by examining the pressures states face and the interactions between states. This concept is part of realist theory.

11. Bipolarity according to structural realists, this is the distribution of capabilities in a system where there are two predominant players. Generally considered the most stable system on the whole. Polarity is a measure of distribution of capabilities.

12. Bretton Woods System founded in 1944 as a liberal international economic order. At the core of Bretton woods was a system of exchange rates pegged to the dollar, with the dollar serving as the world’s reserve currency. Bretton Woods established the IMF, World Bank, and the GATT.

13. Buckpassing when a state waits for others to remedy a problem and do the balancing (WWII). A perceived defensive advantage often leads to this strategy.

14. Bureaucratic Politics of Governmental Politics Model deals with the outcomes of bargaining games between different government departments with diverse goals. These departments are arranged hierarchically and competition among them can result in piecemeal policy and an unintended result.

15. Chainganging when states become very close and too dependent upon their allies, considered a situation of overbalancing. Chainganging is a common result of a perceived offensive advantage. The opposite of chainganging is buckpassing.

16. Chapter VII Authority written in 1945, this portion of the UN Charter sets out the mandate of the Security Council. The council was created to handle “Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression” and has the authority to sanction military and non-military action to "restore international peace and security." From http://www.un-documents.net/ch-07.htm

17. Clash of Civilizations Samuel Huntington’s prominent post-Cold War paradigm. Huntington’s proposition says that 1) global politics is both multipolar and multicivilizational, 2) the balance of power among civilizations is shifting away from the West, 3) nation states will align themselves along broad cultural faultlines, and 4) modern conflicts will be between civilizations and cultures, not states.

18. Classical Realism Hobbes, Machiavelli, Morgenthau, Clausewitz – a school of thought in which politics is analyzed independently of society and economics. Grounded in the idea that objective laws are rooted in competitive human nature. In this system, states actively pursue their own interests, with those interests being framed in terms of maximized power. The ethics are consequential, i.e. ends justify means.

19. Coercion when one state tries or succeeds in compelling another state to change its actions by threatening to use force. One of the four uses of force (coercion, deterrence, swaggering, defense).

20. Cold War 1945-1991, a period of reconstruction and institutional and economic revitalization, characterized by rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. This rivalry was effectively an ideological competition between a capitalist democracy and a communist command economy. Conflict occurred in the form of proxy wars and an arms race.

21. Collective Security refers to a system in which each state in the system accepts that security is a collective concern and agrees to a joint response to aggression. In this sense, it is distinct from collective defense or alliance systems, in which groups of states ally with each other, principally against possible external threats.

22. Commercial Liberalism British 19th century concept, arguing that due to free trade and interdependence, war is obsolete. The Manchester school of thought believed that while war wastes time and money, free trade aids and profits all. Commercial liberalism argues that trade leads to peace.

23. Commons (Tragedy of) it is natural for all parties to try and maximize their returns from resources. So when these resources are held collectively, overconsumption and the depletion of these resources can occur, to the detriment of all. A common solution to this problem is privatization, but the recent "commons" case of global warming demonstrates that this is impossible.

24. Comparative Advantage a country is said to have a comparative advantage when it can produce a good at a lower cost than its competitors. It is in the best interests of a country to produce the goods for which it has a comparative advantage.

25. Concert of Europe formed in 1815 after Napoleon's defeat with the intention of enforcing the decisions of the Congress of Vienna. The 'concert' was composed of Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, the Quadruple Alliance. The main priorities of the ‘concert’ included establishing a balance of power, thereby preserving territorial status quo, and protecting legitimate governments. The ‘concert’ represented a serious attempt at establishing a lasting peace.

26. Constructivism disputes the idea that anarchy is unavoidable and instead argues that it is what states make of it. People within states are active agents whose understanding of the world can shape and reshape the structure of the system in which they operate. According to this school of thought, international relations is inter-subjunctive. Individuals and their interactions with states are important. Facts are socially created and are only whatever they mean to the actors involved.

27. Core & Periphery the core is highly developed and industrialized, but the periphery is the developing world who export commodities to the core. According to Marxist theory, the periphery is exploited by the core. See dependency theory for more information.

28. Cuban Missile Crisis a standoff in October 1962 between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over the presence of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. In response to this perceived security threat, President Kennedy placed an embargo on Cuba. The crisis was resolved when the Soviets removed their missiles partly in exchange for a secret agreement that the U.S. would remove its own missiles placed in Turkey.

29. Cultural Relativism holds that morality is a product of culture and that different societies will have different perspectives on morality. There is no clear way to resolve these differences. Any attempt to impose universal principles, such as those of human rights, runs the risk of imposing something that is alien to other cultures. There are no objective, universal values. Other cultures are not wrong, they are simply different.

30. Customs Union a union formed when two or more countries agree to remove all barriers to trade with each other, while establishing a common external tariff against other nations. A free trade area exists when nations remove trade barriers with each other while retaining individual tariffs against nonmembers.

31. Defense The defensive use of force is the deployment of military power so as to be able to do two things - to ward off an attack and to minimize damage to oneself if attacked. For defensive purposes a state will direct its forces against those of a potential or actual attacker, but not against his unarmed population. Defensive weapons differ from offensive ones in the sense that it is possible for a state to make itself more secure without making others less secure.

32. Democratic Peace Theory Based on the empirical observation that democracies have historically tended not to fight wars against one another, this theory suggests that the spread of democratic government can be the antidote to war in the international system. Proponents of this theory point to either democratic norms (such as a shared belief in human rights) or actual democratic political structures to explain the lesser incidence of war between democracies. This concept is highly debated. Realists suggest that this phenomenon is actually caused by the prevalence of alliance ties between democracies, which are a function of realist power concerns. John Mearsheimer (a prominent realist) has suggested that democracies are few in number and thus statistically have less opportunities to go to war. For a good analysis of the validity of the democratic peace theory, see this [1]

33. Demonstration Effects Demonstration effects are effects on the behavior of individuals caused by observation of the actions of others and their consequences. Developments in one place will often act as a catalyst in another place, it can be described as a domino effect.

34. Dependency theory A historical structuralist development theory that argues that the world is hierarchically organized, with the leading capitalist states in the core of the global economy dominating and exploiting the poorer states in the periphery.

35. Détente This word comes from the French, meaning a "relaxation of tensions." In political science, the term specifically refers to the relaxation of Cold War tensions that took place between the US and the Soviet Union during the 1970s. Taken from: How the World Works by Russell Bova

36. Deterrence The deterrent use of force is the usage of military power so as to be able to prevent an adversary from taking an undesireable action that they might otherwise be tempted to do. Deterrence is thus the threat of retaliation. The effectiveness of the threat depends upon a state's ability to to convince a potential adversary that it has both the will and the power to punish him severely if he undertakes the undesirable action in question.

37. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) It was established under the United Nations Charter as the principal organ to coordinate economic, social, and related work of the 14 UN specialized agencies, functional commissions and five regional commissions. The Council also receives reports from 11 UN funds and programmes. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) serves as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues, and for formulating policy recommendations addressed to Member States and the United Nations system.

38. Economic Interdependence is a consequence of specialization and the high degree of division of labor. It involves the trade of goods and services across national borders. According to liberal theory the existence of economic interdependence makes states less likely to go to war with each other.

39. Economic Sanctions Economic sanctions are domestic penalties applied by either one country or a group of countries on another one for a variety of reasons. Economic sanctions include, but are not limited to, tariffs, trade barriers, import duties, and import or export quotas. The most famous example of an economic sanction is the fifty-year-old United States embargo against Cuba.

40. Emissions Trading (also known as cap and trade) is an administrative approach used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants. The transfer of allowances is referred to as a trade. In effect, the buyer is paying a charge for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having reduced emissions by more than was needed. Thus, in theory, those who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so, achieving the pollution reduction at the lowest cost to society.

41. Ethnic Cleansing A 1993 United Nations Commission defined it more specifically as, "the planned deliberate removal from a specific territory, persons of a particular ethnic group, by force or intimidation, in order to render that area ethnically homogenous."

42. European Union The EU became the successor organisation to the European Community in 1993, largely as a result of the "Europe 92" program. Europe 92 was designed to complete the establishment of a single market by the removal of remaining fiscal, nontariff, and other barriers to trade. The EU has moved to both widen and deepen the integration process in Europe. As for widening, EU membership increased in several enlargements to 27 members in 2007. As for deepening, 13 members of the EU have joined in an economic and monetary union (EMU) with a common currency (the euro).

43. Export-led growth An outward-looking economic development strategy that emphasizes the production of industrial goods for export. Export-led growth is commonly associated with the economic success of the NIEs in East Asia.

44. Feminism In IR, feminism involves looking at how international politics affects and is affected by both men and women. It also analyses how the core concepts that are employed within the discipline of IR (e.g. war, security, etc.) are themselves gendered. Feminist IR has not only concerned itself with the traditional focus of IR on states, wars, diplomacy and security, but feminist IR scholars have also emphasized the importance of looking at how gender shapes the current international system.

45. Free Rider is an actor which takes advantage of public resources by not contributing or collaborating with collective efforts and norms. For example, a country in non-compliance with the Kyoto protocol would still benefit from collective reductions in carbon emissions.

46. Free Trade-breaks down trade barriers and creates international connections which lead to new interests and priorities in the hopes of World peace

47. Free Trade Agreement/ Area (FTA) The first stage of regional integration, in which the member countries are to eliminate tariffs on all (or substantially all) trade with one another. However, each member country can continue to levy its own tariffs and follow its own trade policies toward nonmembers.

48. G20 The Group of Twenty Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (known as the G-20 and also the G20 or Group of Twenty) is a group of finance ministers and central bank governors from 20 economies: 19 countries, plus the European Union. The current chair country of the G-20 for 2010 is South Korea. Collectively, the G-20 economies comprise 85% of global gross national product, 80% of world trade (including EU intra-trade) and two-thirds of the world population. The G-20 is a forum for cooperation and consultation on matters pertaining to the international financial system. With the G-20 growing in stature since the 2008 Washington summit, its leaders announced on September 25, 2009, that the group will replace the G8 as the main economic council of wealthy nations.

49. G7 & G8 The G-7 includes the seven largest industrial democracies, which account for about two-thirds of global output. It includes the G-5 (the United States, Japan, Germany, France and Britain) plus Italy and Canada. The G-8 includes the G-7 members plus Russia. Although Russia is theoretically a full member, it does not participate fully in the G7's trade and financial deliberations.

50. GATT The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a provisional treaty that became the main global trade organization in 1948 by default when a planned International Trade Organization did not receive final approval. As an organization, GATT provided a written code of behavior, a forum for multilateral negotiations, and a venue for dispute settlement on trade issues. When the WTO was formed in 1995, GATT reverted to its original status as a treaty to regulate trade in goods.

51. Glastnost and perestroika are, respectively, the policies of “openness” and “restructuring,” which Mikhail Gorbachev pursued as a general secretary of the Communist Party of the USSR between 1985 and 1991, which had the aim of complementing one another towards renovating the Soviet political system and society. Glastnost was analogous to the freedom of speech and publication. Its immediate effect was and an flux of reports about corruption and criminality as well as state crimes, while perestroika encouraged political democratization through an introduction of contested election and new political institutions, as well as economic liberalization through legalization of cooperative and other semi-private business enterprises. The policies had a catastrophic effect on Gorbachev’s political career, because they undermined public confidence in his ability to govern successfully. See this [2]

52. Global Warminga term used to describe a gradual increase in the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans that is believed to be altering the climate. This increase in temperature is said to be caused by human activity involving the burning of fossil fuels and the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

53. Globalization “Globalization is a process that is making people increasingly interdependent and is altering the structure of the international system.” A working definition courtesy of Michael Frantantuono

54. Groupthink The tendency, most often found in small, cohesive groups operating under conditions of stress, to abandon critical thinking in favor of viewpoints that reflect group solidarity. The term was coined by William Whyte, who claimed it was a "rationalized conformity—an open, articulate philosophy which holds that group values are not only expedient but right and good as well." The most prominent researcher of groupthink was Irving Janis. Some scholars would point to the Bush administration and certain of its poor decisions as an example of this occurrence. See [3] from the New York Times, or this book review [4] which gives a concise and thorough overview of the topic.

55. Hegemonic Stability Theory In an anarchic system, the existence of a single superpower will deter any shifts in the overall balance of power ensuring long-term stability. In terms of economics, a relatively open and stable international economic system is most likely to exist when a hegemonic state is willing and able to provide leadership.

56. Hegemony Leadership, preponderant influence, or dominance in the international system, usually (but always) associated with a particular state. Gramscian theorists use the term in a cultural sense to connote not only the dominance of a single world power but also the complex of "ideas" social groups use to legitimize their authority.

57. High & Low PoliticsHigh Politics- Refer to policies involving the State in the International Arena usually concerning National Security and Defense. Low Politics- Refer to government policies at the domestic level, usually concerning health care and the economy.

58. Human Rights the definition of human or natural rights as the rights of each person simply as a human being specifies their character; they are rights. For the question of "what is it in human nature that gives rise to human rights?", there are two basic answers; that HR arise from human needs; and HR reflect the minimum requirements for human dignity or moral personality. From: "Human Rights in World Politics" from International Politics by Art and Jervis.

59. Human Securitysecurity concerning individuals as the ultimate referent object of security. Protection of the individual is in regards to human rights, humanitarianism, development, and conflict resolutions primarily handled by the state. But, when the state becomes the cause of human insecurity, the responsibility falls upon the international security if they wish to act. "This idea of individuals rather than the state as the primary object of security is meant to improve both global and national stability.

60. Humanitarian Intervention refers to military intervention by an outside state for the sake of human rights usually concerning crimes committed against the people by the state. Humanitarian intervention also encompasses political and economic intervention in times of disaster in which a state no longer can offer security and human rights to its citizens. Humanitarian intervention involves territorial intervention by the outside state.

61. IAEA The IAEA was created in 1957 and originated from President Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” speech to the UN General Assembly in 1953. The Agency is the world’s nuclear inspectorate and inspects the nuclear facilities of its member states to ensure nuclear materials are not used for military purposes, pursuant to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NTP), which binds signatories to safeguard agreements for their nuclear material and binds the five recognized nuclear powers (U.S., Russia, UK, France, China) to not transfer their nuclear weapons or technology to non-nuclear states.

62. IBRD The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, known as IBRD, is one of the five institutions that comprise the World Bank Group. The Bank was established immediately after the WWII to foster economic growth in post-war Europe and Japan. Today, its main goal is to fight poverty and encourage sustainable development through extension of loans to creditworthy governments and public enterprises.

63. ICC The International Criminal Court was created in 1998 and is governed by the Rome Statute. It is the court of international human rights law intended to try individuals (and not states) accused of genocide, war crimes or crimes against humanity.

64. ICJ The International Court of Justice (also known as the World Court) is the general purpose global court with responsibility for resolving disputes among states under international law. Created after WWII and located in the Hague, Netherlands.

65. Idealism A perspective on world politics that emerged after WWI as a challenge to realism. Idealism tends toward an optimistic view of human nature and society, seeing cooperation as not only desirable but natural. Liberalism and constructivism carry on the tradition of idealism.

66. IMF One of the key Bretton Woods Institutions. It provides loans to countries facing persisting balance of payment difficulties and those loans are usually granted under the condition that the countries adopt certain policies prescribed by the IMF for the country to improve its fundamental economic and financial situations.

67. Import substitution industrialization An economic development strategy that seeks to stimulate industrialization by erecting barriers to imports and serving the local market through domestic production. Largely abandoned by the 1980s in most of the world in favor of integration into global economy and pursuit of export led growth.

68. Interdependence Refers to the web of mutually beneficial relationships that bind states and societies together in the era of globalization and that would be highly costly to break. It can be economic, social, military, etc. The economic interdependence has been on the rise and it is believed that interdependence leads to peace.

69. Intergovernmental Organizations The term intergovernmental organization (IGO) refers to an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations working on issues of common interest. They are subject to international law and have the ability to enter into agreements among themselves or with other states. They often deal with the questions of global security and economic and social prosperity.

70. International Organization Voluntary association of sovereign states formally constituted for the purpose of achieving some common objective. They can be 2 types: INGOs (non profits and corporations) and intergovernmental organizations such as the EU and UN.

71. Just War Doctrine a theory claiming that an armed conflict must meet set criteria when it comes to why and how war is conducted. Unlike pacifism, it accepts that war can sometimes be necessary and just and in contrast to amoral realism it follows a certain set of moral guidelines.

72. Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Though it went into force in 2005, the US and many other nations are not yet parties to it.

73. League of Nations an international organization created after the First World War. The Covenant establishing the League was part of the Treaty of Versailles. The aims of the League were to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security. It was inspired by Wilson’s 14 points. The League of Nations was an association of states, which had pledged themselves not to go to war before submitting their disputes with each other. When a state was not members of the League, it has the option to go to arbitration or enquiry.

74. Leviathan book written by Thomas Hobbs in 1651, during the English civil war. Hobbs explained that conflicts and competitions are inevitable due to the state of nature, where human beings have equal rights. Metaphorically the biblical creature “Leviathan” represented a strong central government where citizens would give up some their right to object the government in order to achieve safety and stability.

75. Liberal Institutionalism Created by Michael Doyle, liberal institutionalism is a theory, according to which cooperation among international institutions can reduce the effects of absence of regulation of the international system. Namely, it proposes a formal system of international law that can regulate and constrain the behavior of states. The ultimate goal is to maintain peace and security through institutional cooperation.

76. Liberal Internationalism Founded by Michael Doyle and derived from Kant’s notion of republican government as an important source of “perpetual peace.” Kant argued that war does not do any good and democratic citizen avoid war (democratic peace theory).

77. Liberalism: Originated from Immanuel Kant, liberalism states that significant global cooperation is possible and that we can move beyond the conflict over power. The key assumption is that peace and institutional and economic cooperation among states can produce absolute gains for all participants.

78. Linkage Henry Kissinger’s strategy in the 1970s of linking Soviet access to U.S. trade to “good behavior” on the part of Soviet Union around the world in order to ease tension related to the Vietnam War.

79. Long Peace The period of absence of a major war between the U.S. and USSR during the 45 years of their enmity, after the end of WWII. The Long Peace has been attributed to the bipolarity during the Cold War, which was presumably inherently more stable than uni-polar or multi-polar systems.

80. Marxism the fundamental theory of communism, which is founded on three main pillars. Firstly, a materialistic interpretation of history, which contends that history is shaped by struggle between classes. Secondly, critique of capitalism, which holds that capitalist societies cannot achieve further development because ownership remains only in the hands of the bourgeoisie. Thirdly, advancement of proletariat revolution, where the working class seizes more power through a social revolution.

81. Mercantilism is economic nationalism, which is carried out for the sake of increasing the wealth and the power of a nation. According to Adam Smith, this type of system could muster economic power though increasing exports and limiting imports.

82. Millennium Development Goals are eight development goals agreed upon by UN member states and international organizations. The goals have to be achieved by 2015 and focus on reduction of poverty, provide universal child education, promote gender equality, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, reduce disease epidemics, ensure environmental sustainability and global partnership for development.

83. Multilateral Treaties A treaty among three or more sovereign states which aims to set an example of behavior of the world as a whole. Like other treaties, each party to a multilateral treaty owns some obligations to all other states party to the treaty.

84. Multipolarity refers to a way in which power is distributed in the international system among three or more nation-states, which possess nearly equal amounts of military, economic and cultural power.

85. Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) after the world witnessed the destructive power of aerial bombardment during WWII with the conclusion of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear MAD became the new phenomena. Today MAD exists as a condition of nuclear deterrence where each side has the ability to inflict an unacceptable level of damage and thus prevents any rational actor to resort to nuclear war.

86. Nation, State, and Nation-state

Nation: a community of people composed of one or more nationalities a group of people who see themselves due to shared historical and cultural experiences as members of a common group.

State: a politically organized body of people usually occupying a definite territory

Nation-state: A state that exists to provide territory and governance for a group of people who see themselves as a single nation

87. National Interest the objectives and needs that drive state behavior in the international system

88. Nationalism The belief that people care about their national identity and are motivated to seek national self-determination by acquiring a state of their own.

89. NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); formed April 4, 1949 following WWII in an effort to counter the Soviet Union and its expansion. It is a military alliance of democratic state of Europe and North America. There are 28 members: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Rep, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States.

90. Neo-conservatism the assertive promotion of democracy and United States national interest in international affairs including through military means

91. Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) [Non-governmental organizations: interest groups that influence the state in 5 ways. It raises issues that they like to see changed, changes how activity is talked about by others, changes how issues are handled via diplomacy, changes behaviors of key actors, and changes behavior of the public. NGOs lobby and participate in civil disobedience to be heard and the power of NGOs stem from direct links to citizens at the local, state, national, and transnational level.] From How The World Works: Organization whose members are individuals rather than states, but whose membership and organizational apparatus often can extend across the borders of multiple states. Examples are Amnesty International and Al Qaeda.

92. Non-Discrimination The trade principle that requires all countries that are members of GATTand the WTO to provide all other members equal access to their home market. One cannot treat the imports of one GATT/WTO member more favor-ably than those of another. From Russell Bova's How the World Works

93. Non-tariff barriers (NTBs) non-tariff forms of restricting trade. These NTBs discriminate against imports and represent an exception to the free trade concept instituted under the GATT. Forms of NTBs include quotas, anti-dumping legislation, voluntary export restraints, and orderly market agreements, which are effectively multi-country VERs.

94. NPT Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: signed in July 1, 1968 by 98 countries that authorized only 5 nuclear powers (US, Russia, UK, France, and China). Those who signed agreed to refrain from producing, obtaining, and stockpiling nuclear weapons. Nuclear states agreed to help other countries develop civilian nuclear power plants and to take measures to work towards disarmament. The problem with this treaty is that there was no set timeline are disarmament meaning that nuclear powers could keep their arsenals indefinitely; also it allows members to withdraw from the treaty without penalty.

95. Nuclear Proliferation/ Non-Proliferation spread of technology, materials, knowledge of nuclear capabilities. Supporters for non-proliferation argues that the existence of more nuclear weapons will result in an endangerment to all states and warns of the dangers of having non-state actors having access to these weapons and technology.

96. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) cartel of the world's largest global exporters of oil, created in September 1960. 12 members are Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates & Venezuela. OPEC seeks to regulate oil production & sales, thereby stabilizing the global price of oil. The cartel first demonstrated its influence by imposing an oil embargo from October 1973- March 1974. It currently provides one-third of the world's oil production. Saudi Arabia is the largest oil producer and most influential member. See: www.opec.org/aboutus/

97. Organizational Process/ Standard Operation Procedures Where formal organizations are the setting in which decisions are made, the particular decisions or policies chosen by decision-makers can often be explained through reference to the organization's particular structure and procedural rules. Such explanations typically involve looking at the distribution of responsibilities among organizational sub-units, the activities of committees and ad hoc coordinating groups, meeting schedules, and rules of order.

98. Organization for Security & Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)originated in 1973, to improve relations between sides during the Cold War. After the end of the Cold War, the OSCE adopted a more formal structure, including a rotating chairmanship, senior council and parliamentary assembly. It is the world's largest intergovernmental organization. Its member states comprise Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia & North America. See: www.osce.org

99. Outsourcing & Offshoring Trend associated with globalization. Both of these terms describe subcontracting to a third party. An American company may outsource to a subsidiary company, located in a country with lower production & labor standards. By engaging in these strategies, American companies increase profit, but employ fewer American citizens.

100. P5 Permanent five members of the UN Security Council: the United States, Great Britain, France, Russia & China, who possess veto power on any decision. The UN Security Council is designed to "prevent another 1914 or 1939, in which the most powerful nations would exercise an effective monopoly on force." See: New York Times article "Who Needs the U.N. Security Council?" http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/17/magazine/17UNITED.html?scp=6&sq=UN%20p5&st=cse&pagewanted=all

101. Pax Britannica & Pax Americana Pax Britannica lasted between the Napoleonic Wars and World War I (1815-1914). Britain established unparalleled global influence through naval power and trade relationships. During Pax Britannica, Britain and the United States remained peaceful and cooperative allies. World Wars I & World War II ended the Pax Britannica.

Pax Americana starts after the end of World War II (1945). The United States had grown in population, technology & military strength. The United States gained additional influence through contributing to the Marshall Plan, Japanese reconstruction, and international institutions (UN, IMF, World Bank, NATO).

102. Peace Enforcement Application of military force, or the threat of its use, normally pursuant to international authorization, to compel compliance with resolutions or sanctions designed to maintain or restore peace and order.

103. Peacekeeping In peacekeeping operations, the UN intervenes to maintain a peace already established via political negotiation or military stalemate. The UN forces are typically there with the prior consent of all parties to the conflict to play the role of an impartial buffer force. From Russell Bova Chp 3 International Law and Organization

104. Peacemaking In peacemaking operatons, the UN intervenes without a prior ceasefire having been established. The task is to impose a peace with or without the consent of the parties to a conflict. The peace making forces are more heavily armed than peace keeping forces and have been used in places like Bosnia and Somalia. From Russell Bova Chp 3 International Law and Organization

105. Peak Oil Concept formulated by M. King Hubbert in 1956, stating that oil is a limited resource. A limited resource will be depleted according to the following laws: Production/extraction starts at zero, rises to a "peak" (maximum level), and after the peak, will decline until the resource is depleted. Some scholars claim that we have already reached peak oil, and from now on, production will decline. Others argue that we have not reached the peak, and only need to discover new technology & extraction sites around the world. See: Michael Klare, Resource Wars: The New Landscape of Global Conflict.

106. Peloponnesian War Thucydides' account of the Melian dialogue from the Peloponnesian War illustrates a key trend in International Relations, namely that power trumps justice. The lesson learned from the dialogue between the powerless Melians and the all powerful Athenians is that independence and survival depend upon the accumulation of sufficient power. Appeals to justice function in a domestic arena where there are institutions to enforce it, but in the international arena an appeal to justice gives little protection to those like the Melians who are threatened by other powerful nations. This represents Realist ideals. From Russell Bova Chp 1 How to Think about World Politics [Greece 431-404bc. Thucydides was the first to write a purely human viewpoint in which he explianed the cause of the war was a distribution of power. Representation of Realist ideals. Struggle between Athens and Sparta because Sparta felt that Athens had become too powerful, the Coreyra/Corinth dispute, the sacking of pontideaea, and trade sanctions on Pegara]

107. Positive-sum scenario in which all parties can gain or profit. In the liberal model of comparative advantage, through trade, all parties can benefit. In this scenario, one’s gain is not another’s loss. This scenario considers absolute gains, whereby you are better off than you were before, as opposed to relative gains.

108. Power Transition This is a theory about the cyclical nature of war and how it relates to power in international relations. It states that war is most probable when a challenger to the dominant power enters into approximate parity with the dominant power and is not satisfied with the existing system. Similarly it states that alliances will be most stable when the parties involved are satisfied with the existing system.

109. Pre-emptive War when a state strategically attacks its rival, convinced that war is imminent. The state could cite the rival's military troops organizing and marching towards their shared border.

Preventive/ Preventative War when a state strategically attacks its rival, convinced that war is not imminent, but eventual. The state could cite the rival's past acts of aggression and its current increased military spending, to predict the rival will commit future acts of aggression.

The George W. Bush administration argued that in present international relations, pre-emptive & preventive war cannot be distinguished. New actors (terrorists) and weapons (nuclear, biological) mean that war is harder to foresee, and a state may be attacked suddenly, without warning.

110. Prisoner's Dilemma Game theory scenario developed by Albert W. Tucker. Two individuals are arrested by the police and accused of a crime. The police need more evidence in order to make a conviction, separate the individuals, and encourage each to testify against the other. If one individual cooperates, he will walk free and the other will receive a 10-year sentence. If neither cooperates, they will each receive a 6-month sentence. If both cooperate, they will each receive a 5-year sentence. The Prisoner's Dilemma scenario encourages insecurity & a zero-sum equation. It resembles a security dilemma. See: Brian Skyrms, PDF article. http://www.lps.uci.edu/home/fac-staff/faculty/skyrms/StagHunt.pdf

111. Protectionism Any policy pursued by a foreign government to insulate domestic industries from foreign competition. Prominent examples include tariffs, import quotas, or domestic subsidies.

112. Rational Actor Model view of foreign policy decision-making that rests on the assumption that policy-makers have a shared sense of the national interest, which they seek to attain via a rational process of finding the most efficient means to achieve those shared ends

113. Realism it analyzes politics in terms of 'interests' as power. Realism tends toward a pessimistic view of human nature and society, seeing conflict as inherent and inevitable. Classical Realism- Morganthau- anarchy is assumed as a prominent concern in international relations,with the international system as the focus of analysis. States are hard-wired for power they seek more and more power and this leads to war. -power is mans control over the minds and actions of other men -international relations is a struggle for power -states cannot die for a moral reason and cannot sacrifice themselves -no morality in international politics -States are suspicious of other states, calculated, prudent and cautious, no permanent friends or enemies only permanent interests

-Neo-realism: Waltz- realism is a description of a system and states are trapped in a structure. like the classical realists, neorealist believe that anarchy exists. Countries create a distribution of capabilities and power--> relative gain. The primary goal is survival and the focus of analysis is power, and there is a clear distincition between domestic and international politics:

-International Politics: states are actors, there is a lack of hierarchy, all states behave the same no matter their structure of government

-Domestic politics: not all groups are egual, they are different units

Realists – Bismark, Machiavelli, Kissinger – analyze politics in terms of power; conflict is the natural way of things

114. Realpolitik refers to a type of foreign policy, according to which concern for the security of the state (raison d’etat) is primary to any other concern, including ideology or moral dilemmas. Realpolitik also calls for pragmatism in calculating power and national interests by building military capabilities, creating alliances, or making concessions, which also reduce the chance of conflict. [5]

115. Relative gains The benefits that accrue to a state from its international interactions assessed in comparison to the benefits that accrue to other states. Realists argue that states are most concerned with relative gains and that this concern is a source of tension and conflict in world politics. From: How the World Works by Russell Bova

116. Relative Power The perceived amount of power that one state has in relation to another state. For classical realists, relative power concerns are the defining factor in state's interests.

117. SALT & START SALT(Strategic Arms Limitation Talks): Discussions and agreements signed between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1970s intended to reduce the expansion of offensive nuclear weapons START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks): Discussions and agreements between the US and the USSR in the 90s to reduce the number of nuclear warheads in their respective arsenals, resulted in the largest and most complex arms control treaty in history

118. Secure second strike capability The ability of a country with nuclear weapons to ride out an initial nuclear attack with enough retaliatory capability left intact to do unacceptable damage to one's adversary. From: How the World Works by Russell Bova

119. Security Competition

120. Security Dilemma A country can never fully know the intentions of its neighbors, making defensive measures appear threatening or aggressive, creating the security dilemma. This frequently leads to arms races, even if the countries involved have no intention of using force.

121. Self-help this is the need states have to protect themselves and their interests through accumulation of power and forging alliances. Since the world exists in a state of anarchy, there is no international authority to impose order, therefore states must depend on self-help.

122. Soft Power states use soft power to influence others positively through attraction rather than coercion. This can be through political virtues, cultural achievements, or other positive examples.

123. Sovereignty Comes from within a territory, having the authority to establish and enforce its own rules

124. Stability/ Instability Paradoxstability is created through the presence of nuclear weapons, ensuring these powers will not fight among themselves because no rational actor would allow a conflict to escalate to nuclear war. Instability is created because these conflicts are played out through proxy, conventional wars.

125. Stag Hunt Game theory scenario developed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Two hunters must decide whether to hunt hare or stags, and whether to hunt separately or together. They will each get something if they work separately. However, they will each get more if they work together in capturing a stag. This model encourages social cooperation and a positive-sum equation. While the Prisoner's Dilemma scenario is widely-known and cited, the Stag Hunt scenario is considered more realistic and helpful in IR theory. See: Brian Skyrms, PDF article. http://www.lps.uci.edu/home/fac-staff/faculty/skyrms/StagHunt.pdf

126. State of Nature based on the ideas of philosopher Thomas Hobbes, realists believe there still exists a natural state of anarchy with no international government or authority.

127. State of War the state of being in a declared armed conflict

128. Status Quo & Revisionist Powers Based on power transition theory, a status quo power is a state that is satisfied with their current situation in the international system, while a revisionist power is a state that is unsatisfied with the international system.

129. Strategic Defense Initiative The strategic defense initiative was created by Ronald Reagan in 1983. The original idea was to use ballistic missiles to shoot down incoming nuclear missiles, in order to protect the United States. Many critics thought this idea would damage the safety of mutually assured destruction, putting the U.S. in harm’s way. This idea was laughed at by many and was commonly referred to as “Star Wars.”

130. Structural Realism (Neo-Realism) Structural realism is a theory developed by Kenneth Waltz, where states act in an anarchical world. States’ first concern is their security, which often creates a security dilemma. The international system may become stable through power balancing, but the balancing of powers is not necessarily the goal of each individual state.

131. Supranational Organization A supranational organization is an organization that holds certain authority over its member states. Member states relinquish certain powers to their supranational organization. Supranational organizations may also enact certain laws which have more authority than the laws of its member states’. A supranational organization may also grant rights and privileges to its nation-states.

132. Swaggering The objectives for swaggering are more diffuse. Generally swaggering involves only the peaceful use of force and it aims to enhace the national pride of a people or two to satisfy the personal ambitions of its ruler. A state or a statesman swaggers in order to loo and feel more powerful and important, to be taken seriously by the others.

133. Tariff A tariff is a tax imposed by nation-states upon incoming goods. Tariffs are commonly associated with protectionist policies.

134. Terrorism The term terrorism, as defined by the U.S. government, is “premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents.”

135. Total War concept invented by Napolean, describing a situation where a country's entire resources are mobilized for war. In such situations, the stakes are usually much higher, and it is often a fight for national survival.

136. Treaty of Westphalia signed in 1648, it created the notion of sovereign nation-states and marked the end of the 30 years war in Europe. The sovereign ruler of the state replaced religious leaders as supreme ruler.

137. Two-level Game view in liberal theory in which government officials simultaneously negotiate with their international counterparts and domestic stakeholders.

138. UN Commission on Human Rights & Council on Human Rights

139. UN General Assembly consists of one representative from each member country and has three primary responsibilities: it debates all issues, decides which new states will be admitted, and it elects states to other positions in the UN.

140. UN Security Council the body in the UN that promotes and maintains global peace and is also the entity that can authorize force. It consists of 15 members 5 of which are permanent members (US, Britain, China, France, and Russia). Members are given 2 years terms.

141. Unipolarity

142. Unitary Actor Model

143. United Nations Founded in 1945, the United Nations is the predominant international organization within the current international system. Its ultimate goal is to promote peace and nonviolent resolution of conflict worldwide. The Un identifies its secondary goals as facilitation of interstate cooperation on international law, international security, human rights, economic development, and social progress. The UN functions as a platform for interstate conflict resolution. According to its charter, all nations are viewed as equal. The UN has six principal organs for conflict resolution: 1.) The General Assembly 2.) The Security Council 3.) The Economic and Social Council 4.) The Trusteeship Council 5.) The International Court of Justice 6.) the Secretariat. The UN currently has 192 member states.

144. Waltz's "Three Images" of International Relations In 1959, Waltz's book "Man, the State, and War" attempted to formulate a structural realist theory which classified theories of international relations into three categories, or levels of analysis. 1st Image: Individual, Human Nature. 2nd Image: State, Regime, Type. 3rd Image: System level (as a whole). see: International Politics, enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues by R. Art and R. Jervis.

notes from class: Waltz argued that analysis should focus on the third level. Although Waltz is credited as creating structural realism, his language of the three levels is now used by political scientists from across the spectrum.

145. Washington consensus set of principles that informed economic liberalization policies of South in 1990s. Some of these principles were forced on the South by coercive actions of the U.S. or structural adjustment/austerity programs imposed by the World Bank and IMF. Others were adopted voluntarily. The consensus was focused on fiscal discipline, spending on public goods, tax reform, privatization, and deregulation. see: International Politics, enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues by R. Art and R. Jervis.

notes from class: The Washington Consensus was influenced by the neo-classical economic theory, also known as the Chicago School. The consensus was basically the directions coming from Washington instructing the developing world to take their governments "out of the market" and to increase privitization and free trade.

146. World Health Organization (WHO) The World Health Organization is the United Nation’s authority on health issues, formed in 1948. The organization’s ultimate goal is the improvement of health, especially public health worldwide. The WHO is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards. The WHO is also responsible for supporting UN governments which ask for its help, and recommending policy to these governments. To achieve its ultimate objective of health improvement, the WHO has a six point agenda: 1. Promoting development 2. Fostering health security 3. Strengthening health systems 4. Harnessing research, information, and evidence 5. Enhancing worldwide collaboration and partnerships 6. Improving performance.

147. WTO The World trade Organization acts as an intermediary body for international trade. The WTO enforces trade agreements and rules, provides a forum for governments to help negotiate trade agreements, and helps settle trade disputes between its member nations. The Organizations describes itself as “an organization for liberalizing trade”, and places heavy emphasis on minimizing trade barriers in the international arena. The WTO was established in 1995 at the end of the Uruguay round of the GATT, and thus follows the principles of the GATT. The WTO is thus regarded largely as the successor to the GATT. One important difference between the WTO includes trade in services, as well as intellectual property considerations, whereas the GATT did not.

148. Zero Sum OR Fixed Sum is a term in international relations and economics which describes a situation where the gains and the losses of a party are reversely proportionate to the gains and losses of another. In other words the total gains minus the total losses equal zero. It usually creates a highly tense and competitive dynamic. see: International Politics, enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues by R. Art and R. Jervis.